LOCATION, CLIMATE, LANGUAGE, RELIGION, FLAG,
CAPITAL
The Russian Federation, or Russia (until 25 December 1991 officially
known as the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic RSFSR),
constituted the major part of the USSR, providing some 76% of its area
and some 51 of its population in 1990. It is bounded by Norway, Finland,
Estonia and Latvia to the north west and by Belarus and Ukraine to the
west. The southern borders of European Russia are with the Black Sea,
Georgia, Azerbaijan, the Caspian Sea and Kazakhstan. The Siberian and
Far Eastern regions have southern frontiers with the People’s Republic of
China, Mongolia and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The
eastern coast line is on the Sea of japan, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Pacific
Ocean and the Barents Sea. The northern coast line is on the Arctic
Ocean. The region around kaliningrad (formerly Konigsberg in East
Prussia), on the Baltic Sea, became part of the Russian Federation in
1945. It is separated from the rest of the Russian Federation by Lithuania
and Belarus. It borders Poland to the south, Lithuania to the north and
east and has a coast line on the Baltic Sea. The climate of Russia is
extremely varied, ranging from extreme Arctic conditions
areas and much of Siberia to generally temperate weather in the south.
rative The average temperature in Moscow in July is 19°C (66°F); the average
worth for January is 9°C (15°F). Average annual precipitation in the capital is
575 mm. The official language is Russian, but a large number of other
languages are in daily use. Religious adherence is varied, with many
religions closely connected with particular ethnic groups. Christianity is
the major religion, mostly adhered to by ethnic Russians and other Slavs.
The Russian Orthodox church is the largest denomination. The main
oncentrations of adherents of Islam are among Volga Tatars, Chuvash
d Bashkirs, and the peoples of the northern Caucasus, including the
hechen, Ingush, Ossetians, Kabardinians and the peoples of Daghestan.
uddhism is the main religion of the Buryats, the Tuvans and the
Kalmyks. The large pre 1917 Jewish population has been depleted by war Federation. The national flag (approximate proportions 2 by 1) consists of
and emigration, but there remain some 656,000 Jews in the Russian
three equal horizontal stripes of white, blue and red. The capital is
Moscow.
Following the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991, the Russian
international community, and was granted the USSR’s permanent seat on
Federation was widely recognized as the successor to the USSR in the
the UN Security Council Relations with the West, which had already
improved by the Russian leadership in 1992, partly prompted by the need
for significant western economic assistance. In January 1993 President
Treaty, which envisaged a reduction in the strategic nuclear weapons of
Yeltsin and Us President Bush signed the second Strategic Arms Reduction
both powers to about one third of their current level. In 1994-95 Russia’s
strained by disagreements over the proposed enlargement of NATO to
relations with the USA and western European countries were severally
include some eastern European countries (see below). increasing criticism
by western countries of Russia’s military intervention in Chechnya also
damaged relations, as did policy disagreements concerning the conflict in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Relations with Japan were complicated by a continuing dispute over
the status of the Kurile Island, which had become part of the USSR at the
end of the Second World War. Japan reiterated its long standing demand
that four of the islands be returned to Japanese sovereignty, and delayed
any significant aid contributions until Russia admitted the validity of the
Japanese claim. President Yeltsin visited japan in October 1993, when
significant progress was reported to have been made towards full pem
normalization of relations, although the territorial dispute remained
unresolved. Relations with other Asian countries, including the People’s
Republic of China, the Republic of Korea and India, improved
significantly in 1992-93.
In the early 1990s Russia’s most immediate foreign policy problems th
were with the other former Soviet republics. Relations with Ukraine were
damaged by a dispute over the division of the former Soviet Black Sea
Fleet, and by the status of Crimea, which some Russian nationalists
demanded be returned to Russia. There were also difficulties concerning
economic issues and the status of nuclear weapons on Ukrainian territory
(see chapter on Ukraine). Relations with Estonia, Lativia and Lithuani
were initially hampered by ostensible Russian unwillingness to effect and wihawal of former Soviet troops (now under Russian jurisdiction)
ase republics. However, all Russian troops had been withdrawn
from the three states by the end of August 1994, Nevertheless relations
whoaks and Lativia continued to be strained, as a result of Russian
com of allegedly discriminatory policies towards ethnic Russiany
While the withdrawal of Russian (former Soviet) troops from Poland,
completed by 1994, there were indications that the Russian Federation was
Gemany and other parts of central and eastern Europe
e establishing its political and military influence in the so called
or abroad or republics of the former USSR, especially those areas
involved in civil or ethnic conflicts, or republics with large ethnic Russian
populations, Russian troops were deployed in Tajikistan to support the
Tak Government against rebel forces, and to control the Tajik Afghan
border (see chapter on Tajikistan). There were also allegations that the
Russian Government provided active military support for the separatist
movements in Moldova and Georgia. Both sides in the Armenian
Azerajjani conflict over sovereignty of Nagorny Karabakh claimed that
their respective adversary had received military support from Russia.
There were also indications that the Russian Federation was eager to
reclaim the role that the former USSR had played in international politics.
In February 1994 Russia was instrumental in persuading Bosnian Serb
forces to withdraw their artillery form around Sarajevo, thus temporarily
bringing to an end the bombardment of the city and averting the threat of
NATO air strikes, Russia also contributed peace keeping forces to the UN
personnel in Bosnia and herzegovina. However, in 1995 the Russian
leadership became increasingly critical of UN policy towards the former
Yugoslavia, and it continued to develop stronger relations with its
traditional ally in the region, Serbia. Despite its increasing assertiveness in
international affairs, the Russian Federation showed concern at what it
perceived as NATO expansionism in eastern Europe and some republics of
the former USSR. In June 1994, however, after several months hesitation,
Russia formally joined NATO’s partnership for peace program of military
cooperation with former eastern bloe states (see p. 192), which had
already been joined by some 20 countries. Over the next 12 months,
however, Russia repeatedly refused to sign any more detailed program of
cooperation with NATO. nevertheless, in late May 1995 Russia and GOVERNMENT
Under the Constitution of December 1993, the Russian Federation is a
democratic, federative multi ethnic republic, in which state power is
divided between the legislature, executive and judiciary, which are
independent of one another. The President of the Russian Federation is
Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, but also
holds broad executive powers. The President is elected for a term of four
years by universal direct suffrage. The President appoints the Chairman
(Prime Minister) of the Government, which also includes Deputy
Chairmen and Federal Ministers. Supreme legislative power is vested in
the bicameral Federal Assembly, which is elected by universal direct
suffrage for a period of four years. The Assembly’s upper chamber is the
178 member Federation Council, which comprises two representatives
from each of the country’s federal territorial units; its lower chamber is
the 450 member State Duma.
According to the Federation Treaty, approved in March 1992, the
Russian Federation comprises 20 republics (16 of which were autonomous
republics under the previous system, and four of which were autonomous
oblates regions), one autonomous oblast, 49 administrative oblates and six
krais (provinces). There are also ten autonomous okrugs (districts), under
the jurisdiction of the oblast or krai within which they are situated. A
further republic, the Ingush Republic, was created in June 1992. The cities
of Moscow and St Petersburg have special administrative status.
DEFENCE
In May 1992 the Russian Federation established its own armed forces, on
the basis of former Soviet forces on the territory of the Russian Federation
and former Soviet forces outside its territory not subordinate to other
former republics of the USSR. In June 1994 the total Russian armed sand
forces numbered some 1,714,000 (including some 950,000 conscripts
150,000 staff of the Ministry of Defence). Naval forces comprised some
295,000 men (including an estimated 180,000 conscripts), the air forces
some 170,000 (including 85,000 conscripts), while ground forces
numbered some 780,000 personnel (including approximately 450,000
conscripts). There were a further. 280,000 paramilitary troops, including
100,000 border troops. Conscription is compulsory for males over the age years, and lasts for two years. However, the rate of conscription
evasion is reported to be extremely high. Projected budget expenditure on
Defence for 1995 was 48,577,m. roubles (or some 19.6% of total
expenditure).
Following the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the
establishment of the Common wealth of Independent States (CIS), member
and the coordination of armed forces. However, in 1992-93 opposition to
states of the CIS concluded a series of agreements on military cooperation
the idea of joint CIS forces increased, as individual republics began the
formation of their own national armies. None the less, in early 1995
Russian troops remained on the territory of the majority of CIS republics.
ECONOMIC AFFAIRS
In 1993, According to estimates by the World Bank, Russia’s gross.
national product (GNP), measured at average 1991-93 prices, was US
$348,413m., equivalent to $2,350 per head. Between 1985 and 1993, it
was estimated, GNP per head decreased, in real terms, at an average
annual rate of 5.0%. Over the same period the population increased by an
annual average of 0.4%. Gross domestic product (GDP) decreased, in real
terms, by 18.5% in 1992, in comparison with 1991. Real GDP declined
by a further 12% in 1993 and by 15% in 1994.
Agriculture and forestry (excluding fishing) contributed 15.6% of net
material product (NMP) in 1991. Some 15.4% of the employed labor
force were engaged in the agricultural sector in the following year.
Principal agricultural products are grain, potatoes and livestock. In 1990
the Russian Government began a program to encourage the development
of private farming, to replace the inefficient state and collective farms. By
mid 1994 280,000 private farms (mainly small scale) had been established,
although more than 90% of the country’s agriculture continued to be
practised by state and collective farms. Annual agricultural production
increased slightly in 1986-90, but declined by 5% in 1991, by 8% in 1992,
by 4% in 1993 and by 9% in 1994.
Industry (including mining, manufacturing, construction and power).
contributed 59.8% of NMP in 1991. In the following year the industrial
sector employed 38.6% of the total labor force. Gross industrial output
decreased by 18.0% in 1992, by 16.2% in 1993 and by a further 20.9% in
1994. Russia’s industrial stagnation was attributed, in large part, to a
decrease in demand for military equipment. Mining and quarrying employed some 1.7% of the total labor force in
1992, Russia has considerable reserves of energy bearing minerals,
including large deposits of petrolcum, coal, natural gas and peat. The level
of extraction of all fuels declined in 1992; petroleum (including gas
condensate) by 14%; natural gas by 0.4% and coal by 5%. The decline in
petroleum production is largely attributable to the exhaustion of existing
fields and the lack of development of new deposits, many of which are in
highly inaccessible areas of Siberia. Other minerals exploited include
copper, iron ore, lead, phosphate rock, nickel, manganese, gold and
diamonds. Annual production in the mining sector decreased progressively
in the early 1990s: by 4% in 1991, by 11% in 1992, by 15% in 1993, and
by 14% in 1991, by 11% in 1992, by 15% in 1993, and by 14% in the
first six months of 1994.
In 1992 manufacturing provided some 26% of employment.
Production in the sector decreased, in real terms, by 8% in 1991, by 19%
in 1992, by 16% in 1993, and by 30% in the first six months of 1994.
energy
Electric is derived from oil, gas and coal fired power stations,
nuclear power stations and hydroelectric installations. Despite fears
concerning the safety of nuclear power stations in Russia, there are no
plans to decommission any plants in the near future. In 1993 Russia’s 29
nuclear reactors supplied 12.5% of total electricity generation. In 1993
total production of electric energy totalled 956,600m. Kwh, a decline of
5% in comparison with 1992. The decrease in production corresponded to
a fall in demand, owing to the decline industrial production.
The services sector expanded rapidly in the early 1990s: in 1993 it
contributed 42.2% of overall GDP (compared with 32.4% in 1990) and in
1994 the proportion was reported to have risen to some 50%. In 1994 the
volume of services provided by banks, insurance companies, other
financial organizations and real estate agents was estimated to have
increased by more than 30% compared with 1993.
The value of Russian exports to countries outside the former USSR
amounted to US $48,027m. in 1994, while imports were valued at
$28,196m., resulting in a trade surplus of $19,831m. Trade declined
sharply with former members of the Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance, as result of a transfer to payments in freely convertible
currencies and at world prices. The share of the former communist bloc
countries in total Russian trade turnover declined from 24% in 1993. In 1994 Russia’s principal trading partner outside the former USSR was
Germany (accounting for 13% of total Russian trade turnover), followed
by the USA (7.3%), the United Kingdom (6.4%), Italy (5.7%) and the
People’s Republic of China (5.0%). In the same year exports to former
communist countries declined by 19.5%, while imports from them
declined by 2.5%. The principal exports in 1994 were fuels and energy
(comprising 44.7% of Russia’s total exports), followed by ferrous and
non-ferrous metals and derivatives (20.2%), chemical products (7.6%),
machinery and transport equipment (5.3%) and timber and paper products
(4.3%). The principal imports in 1994 were machinery and transport
equipment (accounting for 34.0% of total imports), followed by foodstuffs
(29.2%), chemical products (10.7%), textiles, clothing and footwear
(6.8)and metals (3.5%).
According to official statistics, the budget deficit at the end of 1993
was estimated to be 17,000,000m. roubles (equivalent to approximately
8% of GDP). Russia’s external debt was US $83,089m. at the end of
1993, of which $72,769m. was long term public debt. Consumer prices
rose by an average of 1,353% in 1992, although the annual rate of
inflation declined to an average of 896% in 1993 and to 294% in 1994. In
May 1995 some 2,040,000 people were registered as unemployed (2.4%
of the labor force); however, this estimate did not take into account hidden
unemployment.
In June 1992 Russia became a member of the World Bank, and in July
of that year
formally joined the IMF. Russia is also a member (as a
Country of Operations) of the European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD, see p. 140). In June 1994 Russia signed an
agreement of partnership and cooperation with the European Union.
Russia suffered severe economic problems in 1991-92 in attempting to
effect a transition from a centrally planned economy to a market orientated
system. The economic reforms initiated by Yegor Gaidar in January 1992
aimed to liberalize most prices, drastically to reduce central government
expenditure in order to attain financial stability, and to achieve lasting
structural changes by means of the transfer to private ownership of state
enterprises. Considerable progress was made in liberalizing prices (at the
cost of high inflation), and in October mass privatization was inaugurated,
initially by means of a voucher system. By late 1994 the private sector
reportedly accounted for some 62% of GDP. Although in 1994 overall
GDP declined for the fifth consecutive year, there were indications in the final quarter of the year that industrial production has begun to revive.
Moreover, the annual rate of inflation, although still high, was
substantially reduced. In its economic program for 1993-95 the
Government intended to tighten fiscal and monetary policy, to curb
inflation further, and to integrate Russia more fully in to the world
. The Government also sought to counter the alarming increase in
organized crime, which was not only detrimental to the national economy
but also a potential deterrent to foreign investment in the country.
economy.
SOCIAL WELFARE
The Russian Federation provides a basic social security and health system
for all its citizens. Until 1990 when a Social Insurance Fund was
established, all benefit payments were financed from the general budget.
The Social Insurance Fund is financed by employers on behalf of their
workers, and is administered by the Federation of Independent Trade
unions of the Russian Federation. It provides payments for loss of earnings
owing to ill health, as well as maternity benefit (which is payable for up to
18 weeks).
Old age pensions are provided for women over the age of 55 years
and men over the age of 60, if they have worked for the qualifying period
of at least 20 years (women) or 25 years (men). Some categories of
worker may receive pensions on completion of the qualifying period.
Since 1991 pensions have been provided from a Pension Fund (financed
largely by employer contributions, but also including contributions from
workers, and with a budgetary transfer to pay for family benefits).
Citizens who have worked less than five years of the qualifying period
may receive a social pension, which amounts to two thirds of the
minimum pension. Disability benefits include a child care allowance for
all children under six years old. In April 1991 a further allowance was
introduced for children between the ages of six and 16.
Unemployment benefit was introduced in 1991, when a Federal
Employment Fund was established (financed by employer contributions
and government funds). Benefit is payed to those who have been out of
work for more than three months (for the first three months the previous
employer is obliged to continue paying the ex-employee’s salary). Benefit
is normally payable for a maximum of 12 months.
formerly financed directly by the State, but in 1993 a health insurance
A basic health service is provided for all citizens. All health care was scheme was introduced, with payment by employers rather than by the
State. In 1991 there were 47 physicians, 123 auxiliary staff and 137
hospital beds per 10,000 of the population. Projected budgetary
expenditure
on health care for 1995 was 4,293,631m. roubles (some 1.7%
of total expenditure), while projected expenditure on social welfare was
4,470,853m. roubles (1.8% of the total).
During the early 1990s wages in the health sector fell, in real terms,
and there was a severe shortage of medical supplies. As in most other
former Soviet republics production of medicines in Russia effectively
collapsed as most newly privatized pharmaceutical companies became
unprofitable. The difficulties experienced by the health care system were
reflected in a serious deterioration in the health of the population. In the
early 1990s the number of cases of typhoid, diphtheria and dysentery rose
significantly. The reasons cited for this increase were unsatisfactory
environmental conditions, a decline in immunity, a shortage of vitamins
and medicine, and insufficient inoculations. In November 1993, according
to official figures, some 35% of children in Russia suffering from chronic
illnesses and only 14% of children were healthy. In the period 1990-95
average life expectancy for males decreased from 64 to 58 years. Foreign
aid programs existed at this time, but they were insufficient to compensate
for the severe problems in the health care system.
EDUCATION
Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of seven and 17
years, for a period of 10 years. State education is generally provided free
of charge, although in 1992 some higher education establishments began
charging tuition fees. Students in higher education receive a small stipend
from the State. The level of education in the Russian Federation is
relatively high, with 27 graduates per 10,000 of the population in 1991. At
the beginning of the 1988/89 academic year 98.2% of pupils in general
education day schools were taught in the Russian language. However,
there were 10 other languages in use in secondary education, including
Tatar (0.5%), Yakut (0.3%), Chuvash (0.2%) and Baskhir (0.2%). In the
1992/93 academic year total enrollment in secondary education (including
teacher training and vocational schools) was 9.4m., while 2.6m. students
were enrolled in higher educational establishments. Projected budgetary
expenditure on education for 1995 was 8,998,200m. roubles (representing
3.6% of total expenditure). All educational institutions were state owned under Soviet rule, but a
wide range of private schools and colleges were introduced in the early
1990s. In 1992 there were some 300 non-state schools, with more than
20,000 pupils, and 40 non-state higher education institutions. In the early
1990s there were extensive changes to the curriculum in all branches of
the education system, including an end to the study of politically inspired
subjects, a new approach to the study of Soviet and Russian history, and
the introduction of study of previously banned literary works.
HOW RUSSIA IS RULED
There is irony in considering “how Russia is ruled”, for the phrase,
coined by the late Merle Fainsod in his important study of the exercise of
Soviet power, came to means for the twntieth century the rule of Soviet
must refer to the exercise of power in a Russian Federation in which even
Communist Party and government elites. Today, “how Russia is ruled”
the term used for “Russian” (Rossiiskaia) has the politically sensitive ring
of a multiethnic state, not a homogeneous state of ethnic Russians.
The government of the Russian Federation, like that of the United
States, is composed fo three branches the executive, legislative, and
judicial. Executively leadership is exercised by a president and a cabinet of
ministers, headed by a prime minister. Under Boris Yeltsin’s presidency,
this has been an activist presidency, despite the fact that the legislative
branch has had the power to approve or reject presidential appointments to
the offices of prime minister, as well as the ministers of defense, security,
and foreign affairs. Presidentially initiated reforms have also faced
occasional legislative challenge.
The most powerfull legislative branch of the government is the
Russian Congress of People’s Deputies, a unicameral (one chamber)
legislative body that normally meets twice a year. Elected to a four year
term in republican wide elections in March 1990, prior to the collar of
the Soviet Union, this Russian Congress of 1,033 deputies is composed of
a mixture of well established former Communist bureaucrats, managers of
state enterprises, and deputies elected on more reformist, slates. Among
the deputies are a number of non Russian leaders representing regional,
ethnic homelands within the Russian Federation. From within the Russian
Congress of People’s Deputies, one quarter (256 membes) are elected to
the Russian Supreme Soviet (a standing legislature commonly called the
Russian parliament). By the end of 1992, an increasingly assertive Russian Congress,
coupled with a Supreme Soviet broadly empowered to disburse money.
had collided with the activist presidency of Boris Yeltsin. That collision
led to a public referendum on the Russian presidency and on the
legislature in April 1993. The same impasse ultimately led to yeltsin’s
executive order of 21 September 1993 disbanding the Russian Pariament
and calling for December elections. (See “September 1993 Shwdown”.)
The conflict also prompted Russian President Yeltsin to speed preparation
of a new Russian constitution.
The Issue of the Russian constitution stands at the center of the
highest judicial authority in the Russian Federation, the Constitutional
Court. Established in 1991, the independent Constitutional Court was
intended to be an important arbiter of the constitution and of the legality of
legislative and executive action. Authorized to have 15 members (only 13
were serving in the spring of 1993), the Court is headed by its Chief
Justice Valerii Zorkin. Zorkin and the Constitutional Court have
undertaken highly controversial rulings oveturning the constitutionalityof
both presidential and legislative actions. The Court’s actions in 1993 have
tended to align it more directly in support of the Russian Paliament, and in
conflict with the Russian presidency. Nevertheless, in one of its most
controversial decisions, the Court ruled on the eve of the April 1993
popular referendum that the Congress had inappropriately set as the
standard for passage a majority of all eligible voters, rather than the
simple majority of all votes cast. While the Constitutional Court has been
criticized for what some see as its partisan support for the Russian
Congress in its conflict with Russian President Yeltsin, the reality is that
all determinations regarding the legality of legislative and executive action
are clouded by the nature of the old Soviet constitutinal documets still in
formal operation.
FRAMING A NEW RUSSIAN CONSTITUTION
With renewed support from the April 1993 popular referendum,
President Yeltsin has sought to limit the authority of the Russian Congress
by speeding work on a new post Soviet Russian constitution. In June 1993,
a constitutional conference was held to approve a draft constitutional
document. Reflecting Yeltsin’s own wishes, the conference aproved the
presidential republic with a two chamber parliament and restraints on all
three branches of government. The implementation of any such
draft (still not a public document as of this writing), which calls for a constitution awaits its formal adoption, a matter very much complicated by
the impasse between the Russian president and the leadership of the
Russian parliament.
No doubt the most divisive issue confronting the framers of the new
constitution is that of the autonomy to be assigned to those 21 internally
independent ethnic republics and other autonomous regions, districts, and
cities found within the Russian Federation. Sensitive to the heightened
demands and potentially secessionist impulses of some of these
autonomous national homelands, as for example in Tatarstan and
Chechenia, the constitutional framers have accorded these republics a
formal measure of independence in the new constitution. In reaction to
this, other traditionally Russian ethnic areas within the Federation sought
to secure the same rights by suddenly declaring themselves republican
units, such as the “Republic of the Urals” in Ekaterinburg, the “East
Siberian Republic” in Irkutsk, or the “Maritime Republic” in Bladivostok.
Clearly, the most fateful problem facing Russia’s constituional architects is
how to maintain the intergrity of the Russian Federation, while
recognizing the claims of independence on the part of the more assertive
autonomous regions. The irony in this balancing act is that these
autonomous ethnic republics, as in the case of the newly independent
republics of former Soviet Cental Asia, were the product of a nationalities
policy devised by Joseph Stalin to give the appearance, though rarely the
rality, of support for ethnic identity and national self-determination.
