Official Name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan
PROFILE
Geography
Area: 803,943 sq. km (310,527 sq mi.);
Cities: Capital -Islamabad and adjacent Rawalpindi comprise a national
capital area with a combined population of 1.5 million; Karachi 10
million; Lahore 5 million; Faisalabad 2 million.
PEOPLE
Nationality: Noun and adjective – Pakistan (I).
Population (1994 est.): 128 million.
Annual growth rate (1993): 3%.
Density: 150 per sq. km. (389 per sq. mi. ).
Ethnic groups: Punjabi, Sindhi, Pathan, Baloch, Muhajir (i.e., Urdu
speaking immigrants from India).
Religions: Muslim 97%; small minorities of Christians, Hindus, and
others.
Languages: Urdu (national and official), English (Official), Punjabi,
Sindhi, Pushtu, Baloch.
Education: Literacy (1993_-26%.
Health: Infant mortality rate (1993)-97/1,000. Life expectancy (1993)-
men 59 yrs., women 59 yrs.
Work force: Agriculture 48%. Services 39%. Industry-13%.
GOVERNMENT
Type: Parliamentary in a federal setting. market without internal barriers to trade, common fiscal policies and an
eventual currency union with currencies semi fixed against the rouble. In
order to facilitate faster economic integration 11 states (not Turkmenistan)
and in May 1995 a monetary committee to facilitate payments in different
agreed in October 1994 to establish an Interstate Economic Committee,
currencies was agreed. Belarus has withdrawn its currency and rejoined
Russia and Tajikistan in the rouble zone. A treaty creating a common
market was signed by Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Belarus in
march 1996, with other CIS states excluded from membership.
Originally the main advantage of economic coordination by the CIS
members was the granting of large amounts of aid by Western countries
and international organizations, which made it clear that economic aid was
dependent on CIS coordination in accepting responsibility for the former
USSR’s debt, abiding by all the former USSR’s international obligations
(such as nuclear and conventional arms reductions), and having a secure,
central control and command of nuclear weapons. As a result of CIS
coordination members have gained extensive grants, loans, credits, trade
agreements and technological, business and planning expertise and
guidance.
THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE
67075 Strasbourg, France
Tel: Strasbourg 8841 – 2576
The Council of Europe was founded in 1949. Its aim is to achieve greater
unity between its members, to safeguard their European heritage and to
facilitate their progress in economic social, cultural, educational,
scientific, legal and administrative matters, and in the furtherance of
pluralist democracy, human rights and fundamental freedoms.
The 39 members are Albania, Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany.
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, the Republic of Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macednia (Former Yugoslav
Republic of), Malta, Moldova, the Netherlands, Norway, Polaned,
Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the UK and Ukraine. Special guest status
has been granted to Belarus and Bosnia Herzegovina. Turkey’s
membership was suspended from April 1995 to September 1996 over its military offensive against Kurdish guerrillas in northern Iraq. The Council
voted in May 1996 to block Croatia’s accession until its human rights
record improved.
The organs are the Committee of Ministers, consisting of the foreign
ministers of member countries, who meet twice yearly, and the
Parliamentary Assembly of 281 members, elected or chosen by the
national parliaments of member countries in proportion to the relative
strength of political parties. There is also a joint Committee of ministers
and Representatives of the parliamentary Assembly.
The Committee of Ministers is the executive organ. The majority of
conclusions take the form of international agreements (known as
European Conventions) or recommendations to governments. Decisions of
the Ministers may also be embodied in partial agreements to which a
Fimited number of member governments are party. Member governments
accredit Permanent Representatives to the Council in Strasbourg, who are
also the Ministers Deputies. The Committee of Deputies meets every
month to transact business and to take decisions on behalf of Ministers.
The Parliamentary Assembly holds three week-long sessions a year.
Is 13 permanent committees meet once or twice between each public
plenary session of the Assembly. The Congress of Local and Regional
Authorities of Europe each year brings together mayors and municipal
councilors in the same numbers as the members of the Parliamentary
One of the principal achievements of the Council of Europe is the
European Convention on Human Rights (1950) under which was
established the European Commission and the European Court of Human
Rights, which were merged in 1993. The reorganized European Court of
Human Rights sits in chambers of seven judges or exceptionally as a grand
chamber of 17 judges. Litigants must exhaust legal processes in their own
country before bringing cases before the court.
Among other conventions and agreements are the European Social
Charter, the European Cultural Convention, the European Code of Social
Security, the European Convention on the protection of National
Minorities, and conventions. on extradition, the legal status of migrant
workers, torture prevention, conservation, and the transfer of sentenced
prisoners. Most recently, the specialized bodies of the Venice Commission Party and the Muslim League could not agree on the terms for a
constitution or establishing an interim government. In June 1947, the
British Government declared that it would bestow full dominion status
upon two successor states India and Pakistan. Under this arrangement, the
various princely states could freely join either India or Pakistan,
Consequently, a bifurcated Muslim nation separated by more than 1,600
kilometers (1,000 mi.) of Indian territory emerged when Pakistan became
a self governing dominion within the Commonwealth on August 14, 1947.
West Pakistan comprised the contiguous Muslim majority districts of
present day Pakistan: East Pakistan consisted of a single province, which
is now Bangladesh.
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
With the death in 1948 of its first head of state. Muhammad Ali
Jinnah, and the assassination in 1951 of its first Prime Minister, Liaqat Ali
Khan, political instability and economic difficulty became prominent
features of post independence Pakistan. After Pakistan’s loss in the 1965
war against India, military leader Ayub Khan’s power declined.
Subsequent political and economic grievances inspired agitation
movements which compelled his resignation in March 1969.
During the brief tenure of Gen. Yahya Khan as Martial Law
Administrator, elections were held in 1970 in which the Awami Leauge
Party won an absolute majority in parliament, capturing 167 out of 169
seats from East Pakistan. Frictions between West and East Pakistan
precluded the convening of parliament and culminated in the 1971 army
crackdown in East Pakistan, including the banning of the Awami League
and the arrest of its leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Many of his aides
and several million Bengali refugees fled to India, where they established
a provisional government. Tensions escalated, and hostilities broke out
between India and Pakistan in November 1971. The combined Indian
Bengali forces quickly overwhelmed Pakistan’s army in the East. By the
time Pakistan’s forces surrendered on December 16, 1971, India had
acquired control of a large area of East Pakistan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, whose Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) had
won a majority of the seats in West Pakistan in the 1970 elections,
replaced Yahya Khan. East Pakistan became the independent state of
Bangladesh.
Bhutto moved decisively to restore national confidence and
pursued an active foreign policy, taking a leading role in Islamic and Third
World forums. Although Pakistan did not formally join the Non-Aligned Movement until 1979, the position of the Bhutto Government coincided
largely with that of the non-aligned nations.
arrested him, declared martial law, and suspended portions of the 1973
On July 5, 1977, the military removed Bhutto from power and
constitution. Chief of Army Staff Gen. Muhammad Zia ul Haq became
Chief martial Law Administrator and promised to hold new elections
within 3 months.
Zia released Bhutto and asserted that he could contest new
elections scheduled for October 1977. However, after it became clear that
Bhutto’s popularity had survived his government, Zia postponed the
elections and began criminal investigations of the senior PPP leadership.
Subsequently, Bhutto was convicted and sentenced to death for alleged
conspiracy to murder a political opponent. Despite international appeals on
his behalf, Bhutto was hanged on April 6, 1979.
Disregarding his promise to hold elections, Zia moved to
institutionalize his own regime. following the resignation of President
Choudhury in September 1979, he assumed the presidency and called for
elections in November.
However, as the elections neared, it became clear that the PNA
had fallen into disarray and the PPP was once again the strongest party
nationwide. Fearful of a PPP victory, Zia banned political activity in
October 1979 and postponed the national elections.
In 1980, most center and left parties, led by the PPP, formed the
Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD). The MRD
demanded Zia’s resignation, an end to martial law, new elections, and
restoration of the constitution as it existed before Zia’s takeover. In early
December 1984, President Zia proclaimed a national referendum for
December 19 on his “Islamization” program. He implicitly linked
approval of “Islamization” with a mandate for his continued presidency.
Zia’s opponents, led by the MRD, boycotted the elections. When the
government claimed a 63% turnout, with more than 90% approving the
referendum, many observers questioned these figures.
President Zia then announced national and provincial assembly
elections on a non-party basis for February 1985. An attempt by the MRD
to boycott these elections largely failed; numerous politicians abandoned
their parties in order to stand for office. The elections were generally
regarded as legitimate because of the 53% voter turnout and relative
absence of fraud. The failure of the boycott accentuated divisions within
the MRD and left Zia’s opposition in further disarray. On March 3, 1985, President Zia proclaimed constitutional
changes designed to increase the power of the president vis-a-vis the prime
minister (under the 1973 constitution the president had been mainly a
figurehead). Subsequently, Zia nominated Muhammad Khan Junejo, a
Muslim League member, as Prime Minister. The new National Assembly
unanimously endorsed Junejo as Prime Minister and, in October 1985,
passed Zia’s proposed eighth amendment to the constitution, legitimizing
the actions of the martial law government, exempting them from judicial
review (including decisions of the military courts), and enhancing the
powers of the president.
THE RETURN OF DEMOCRACY
On December 30, 1985, President Zia removed martial law and
restored constitutional rights safeguarded under the constitution. He also
lifted the Bhutto Government’s declaration of emergency powers. The first
months of 1986 witnessed a rebirth of political activity throughout
Pakistan. All parties including those continuing to deny the legitimacy of
the Zia/Junejo Government were permitted to organize and hold rallies. In
April 1986, PPP leader Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto,
returned to Pakistan from exile in Europe. Domestically. Bhutto pursued a
populist agenda and nationalized major industries and the banking system.
In 1973, he promulgated a new constitution accepted by most political
elements and relinquished the presidency to become prime minister.
Although Bhutto continued his populist and socialist rhetoric, he
increasingly relied on Pakistan’s urban industrialists and rural landlords.
Over time the economy stagnated, largely as a result of the dislocation and
uncertainty produced by Bhutto’s frequently changing economic policies.
When Bhutto proclaimed his own victory in the March 1977
national elections, the opposition Pakistan National Alliance (PNA)
denounced the results as fraudulent and demanded new elections. Bhutto
resisted and, after endèmic political violence in Pakistan, arrested the
PNA leadership.
1977-1985 MARTIAL LAW
In the face of increasing anti-government unrest, the army gre
restive. Following the lifting of martial law, Prime Minister Junejo
attempted to make his Pakistan Muslim League (PML) a political party
capable of competing with the PPP and its MRD ‘allies on a national level
His increasing political independence and differences with Zia over
Afghan policy resulted in tensions between them. Zia was a firm advocate
of the Afghan Resistance, which had been fighting Soviet forces since they
invaded Afghanistan in 1979; Junejo repeatedly expressed his concern over
the effect the conflict and the presence of some 3 million Afghan refugees
had on Pakistan’s internal security.
On May 29, 1988, President Zia dismissed the Junejo government
and called for November elections, In June, Zia proclaimed the supremacy
in Pakistan of Shari’a (Islamic law), by which all civil law had to conform
to traditional Muslim edicts.
On August 17, a plane carrying President Zia, American
Ambassador Arnold Raphel, U.S. Brig. Gen. Herbert Wassom, and 28
Pakistani military officers crashed on a return flight from a military
equipment trial near Bahawalpur, killing all of its occupants. In
accordance with the constitution, Chairman of the Senate Ghulam Ishaq
Khan became Acting President.
Gulam Ishaq Khan announced that the elections, scheduled for
November, would take place. After winning 93 of the 205 National
Assembly seats contested, the PPP, under the leadership of Benazir
Bhutto, formed a coalition government with several smaller parties,
including the Muhajir Qaumi Movement (MQM). The Islamic Democratic
Alliance (IJI), a multiparty coalitionled led by the PML and including
religious right parties such as the Jamaat-i-Islami (JI), won 55 National
Assembly seats.
Differing interpretations of constitutional authority, debates over
the powers of the central government relative to those of the provinces,
and the antagonistic relationship between the Bhutto administration and
opposition governments in Punjab and Balochistan seriously impeded
social and economic reform programs. Ethnic conflict, primarily in Sindh
province, exacerbated these problems. A fragmentation in the governing
coalition and the military’s reluctance to support an apparently ineffectual
and corrupt government were accompanied by a significant deterioration in
law and order.
In August 1990, President Khan, citing his powers under the
eighth amendment to the constitution, dismissed the Bhutto Government,
dissolved the national and provincial assemblies, and announced new
elections to be held in October. He appointed opposition leader Ghulam
Mustafa Jatoi caretaker Prime Minister and appointed caretaker
governments in each of the four provinces.
The October elections, observed by several international
organizations, confirmed the political ascendancy of the IJI. In addition to
1 two thirds majority in the National Assembly, the alliance acquired control of all four provincial parliaments and enjoyed the support of the
military and of President Khan. Muhammad Nawaz Sharif, as leader of
the PML, the most prominent party in the III, was elected Prime Minister
by the National Assembly.
Sharif emerged as the most secure and powerful Pakistani Prime
Minister since the mid-1970s. Under his rule, the IJI achieved several
important political victories. The implementation of Sharif’s economic
reform program,
Pakistan’s economic performance and business climate. The passage into
encouragement of private sector economic growth, greatly improved
legitimized the IJI government among much of Pakistani society. The
law in May 1991 of a Shariat bill, providing for widespread Islamization,
military’s participation in the Allied forces during the Gulf War improved
Pakistan’s relations within the world community.
However, Nawaz Sharif was not able to reconcile the different
jamaat-i-Islami (JI), abandoned the alliance because of its perception of
objectives of the IJI’s constituent parties. The largest fundamentalist party,
PML hegemony. The regime was weakened further by the military’s
suppression of the MQM, which had entered into a coalition with the II to
contain PPP influence, and allegations of corruption directed at Nawaz
Sharif.
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif wanted to place his own candidate
in the vacant chief of army staff position, against the wishes of both the
army and the president. Considering Sharif’s intentions a direct threat to
his political authority, President Khan used his constitutional privilege as
commander-in-chief effectively to place his candidate, General Waheed, in
the position.
Despite this setback, Nawaz Sharif intensified his political
confrontation with Ghulam Ishaq Khan. The prime minister appealed for
the renunciation of the eighth constitutional amendment (created under Zia
in 1985), which conferred upon the president the power to dismiss the
government. Khan, hopeful for a second five year term, argued that the
eighth amendment was an important barrier to the ambitions of the prime
minister.
After PML Chairman Junejo’s death in March 1993, Sharif
Loyalists unilaterally nominated him as the next party leader. consequently,
the PML divided into the PML Nawaz (PML/N) group, loyal to the prime
minister, and the PML Junejo group (PML/J), supportive of the president.
In April 1993, President Khan, citing “maladministration, corruption, and
nepotism” and espousal of political violence, dismissed the Shari Government. The consequent interim government led by Balakh Sher
a problem of credibility because of allegations of
Mazari experienced corruption against its members.
The Supreme Court reinstated the Sharif regime in May 1993.
However, President Khan continued his efforts to subvert the government
of Prime Minister Sharif by engineering the dissolution of the Punjab and
NWFP assemblies. The continued confrontation between Sharif and Khan
polarized Pakistani politics and threatened to undermine government
institutions. Finally, under a compromise brokered by the military, both
President Khan and Prime Minister Sharif resigned in July 1993. Wasim
Sajjad, who was serving as Senate Chairman, was appointed interim
President.
An interim government, headed by Moeen Qureshi, a former
World Bank vice president, took office with a mandate to hold national
and provincial parliamentary elections in October. Despite its brief term,
the Qureshi Government adopted political, economic; and social reforms
that generated considerable domestic support and foreign admiration.
In the October 1993 elections, the PPP won a plurality of seats in
the National Assembly and Benazir Bhutto was asked to form a
government. However, because it did not acquire a majority in the
National Assembly, the PPP’s control of the government depended upon
the continued support of numerous independent parties, particularly the
PML/J. The unfavorable circumstances surrounding PPP rule the
imperative of preserving a coalition government, the formidable opposition
of Nawaz Sharif’s PML/N movement, and the insecure provincial
administrations presented significant difficulties for the government of
Prime Minster Bhutto. On the other hand, the election of Prime Minister
Bhutto’s close associate, Farooq Leghari, as President in November 1993
gave her a stronger power base.
During the past 5 months in office, Prime Minister Bhutto’s
government has set out clear policies to deal with key Pakistani priorities,
such as the economy, narcotics, and human rights. The government’s
economic plan received strong support from the international community
in the form of an extended fund facility from the IMF in 1994. Pakistan
promulgated comprehensive counter narcotics legislation in early 1995
effort to improve respect for human rights, the Government created a
human rights cell in the Minister of Interior GOVERNMENT
in 1985 under Zia, provides for a president (chief of state) elected for a
The Pakistan constitution of August 1973, amended substantially
Assembly, and the members of the four provincial assemblies; and a
five year term by an electoral college, consisting of the Senate, National
prime minister (head of government) elected by the National Assembly in
a special session. After the election, the president invites the prime
minister to create a government. The constitution permits
confidence” against the prime
National Assembly, provided that it is not in the annual budget session.
The National Assembly 217 members (10 of whom represent
minorities) elected directly by universal adult suffrage has a 5 year term
which established 20 reserved seats for women expired and has not been
subject to dissolution by the president. In 1990, a constitutional provision
renewed. The Senate, not subject to dissolution, consists of 87 members
elected indirectly for 6 years (19 from each of the provincial assemblies; 8
from the Federally Administered Tribal Areas; and 3 from the Federal
Capital Area). One third of the Senate members stand for reelection
Two lists federal and concurrent designate jurisdiction
legislative subjects; all residual powers belong to the provinces. According
to the 1973 constitution, the president, after consulting with the prime
minister, appoints provincial governors, who act on the advice of the
cabinet or chief minister of the province.
The Supreme Court is Pakistan’s highest court. The president
appoints the Chief Justice, and they together determine the other judicial
appointments. Each province has a high court, the justices of which are
appointed by the president after conferring with the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, the provincial governor, and the provincial Chief Justice.
During the material law period, the powers and autonomy of the civilian
judiciary were curtailed. Several martial law decrees extended the
jurisdiction of military tribunals and prohibited the civilian judiciary from
reviewing the procedures and decisions of military courts.
NATIONAL SECURITY
Pakistan’s 800,000 member armed forces, the world’s 8th
largest, are well trained and disciplined. Pakistan operates military
equipment from several foreign sources, among which the United States,
China, France, and the United Kingdom are the most significant. Much of
this equipment is obsolete. The government’s extensive efforts to modernize Pakistan’s defense capability are frustrated by the country’s
limited industrial base and fiscal resources.
Until 1990, a
modernize Pakistan’s conventional defensive capability. The United States
allocated about 40%
portion of U.S. aid to Pakistan was used to help
nonreimbursable credits for military purchases; the remainder of the
program was devoted to economic assistance. U.S. Government military
of its assistance package to Pakistan to
and economic transfers to Pakistan, excepting counter narcotics assistance
and disaster relief, were suspended in October 1990 due to the
administration’s inability to certify under the Pressler Amendment that
Pakistan did not possess a nuclear weapons program.
ECONOMY
Extreme poverty and underdevelopment in Pakistan obscure the
country which has the resources and entrepreneurial skill to
reality of a
support rapid economic growth. In fact, the economy averaged an
impressive 6.2% per year during the 1980s and early 1990s and grew by
3% in FY 1993-94. However, the economy is extremely vulnerable to
Pakistan’s external and internal shocks, such as in 1992-93, when
devastating floods and political uncertainty combined to sharply depress
economic growth.
Since the early 1980s, the government consistently pursued
market based economic reform policies. Market-based reforms firmly
took hold in 1988, when the government launched an ambitious IMF-
assisted structural adjustment program in response to chronic and
unsustainable fiscal and external account deficits. Since that time, the
government has successfully removed barriers to foreign trade and
investment, begun to reform the financial system, eased foreign exchange
controls, and privatized dozens of state owned enterprises. Progress on
reducing the budget and current account deficits has been mixed, however.
In 1993, for example, during a period of extreme political instability.
Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves were almost completely drawn down,
and the budget deficit reached nearly 8% of GDP.
However, macroeconomic stability and sound fiscal policies were
restored during the second half of 1993 under the interim Government of
Prime Minister. Moeen Qureshi. Largely as a result, Pakistan was able to
Secure a $ 1.3 billion financing package from the IMF in February 1994.
the government’s FY 1994-95 budget was designed to broaden structural
reforms and reduce the budget deficit through tax reform and other
revenue mobilization measures. It also seeks to contain defense spending, which together with debt servicing, has consumed as much as two thirds of
all government revenue in recent years.
With a per capita GDP of about $ 415, Pakistan is considered a
low income country by the World Bank. Only about 25% of adults are
literate, and life expectancy at birth is about 59 years. The population,
expected to double within 20 years. Relatively few resources have been
currently about 128 million, is growing at about 3% per year, and is
devoted to socio economic development or infrastructure projects.
Inadequate provision of social services and high population growth have
contributed to a persistence of poverty and unequal income distribution.
Consequently, the government recently launched the social action program
(SAP), which provides a framework for the provision of basic social
services, primary education, health care, family planning, and rural water
supply and sanitation.
AGRICULTURE AND NATIONAL RESOURCES
The country’s principal natural resource is arable land (25% of
the total land area is under cultivation). It boasts one of the largest
irrigation systems in the world. Agriculture accounts for about 26 of GDP
and employs more than 45% of the labor force. The most important crops
include wheat, cotton, and rice, which together account for almost 70% of
the value of total crop output. Intensive farming practices have enabled
Pakistan to become a net food exporter. Pakistan exports rice, fish, fruits,
and vegetables, and imports wheat, vegetable oil, and sugar.
The economic importance of agriculture has declined significantly
since independence (when its share in GDP was around 53%). Moreover,
in recent years, severe environmental pressures (floods, droughts, and
crop disease) have diminished agricultural production; in 1993, crop
output declined by 3.9%. As a result, the government introduced
agriculture assistance policies, such as increasing support prices for many
agricultural commodities, expanding the availability of agricultural credit,
and providing incentives for the import of agricultural machinery.
Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly sizable
natural gas reserves, some proven oil reserves, and large hydropower
potential. However, the exploitation of energy resources has been slow
due to a shortage of capital and domestic political constraints. For
instance, domestic petroleum production totals only about half the
country’s oil needs. Moreover, despite plans to build several large power
plants in the coming years’ Pakistan’s energy grid is unable to meet the
country’s growing needs, creating an energy gap which represents a major
bottleneck to economic growth. The need to import oil also contributes to sector its first economic priority. In 1993, 21% of the total public sector
Pakistan’s persistent trade deficits and the development of the energy
development budget was allocated to energy. The latest policy aims to
develop new thermal and hydropower generation capacity through private
sector investment.
INDUSTRY
Pakistan’s industry accounts for about 19% of its GDP. Cotton
industries, accounting for about 50% of total exports (FY 1993). Other
extile production and apparel manufacturing are Pakistan’s largest
major industries include cement, fertilizer, edible oil, sugar, steel,
pbacco, chemicals, machinery, and food processing. The public sector
produced about 30% of FY 1991 manufacturing output. However, its
share is on the decline because of ongoing government efforts to privatize
e scale parastatal units. In the face of an increasing trade deficit, the
government hopes to diversify the country’s industrial base and bolster
FOREIGN TRADE AND AID
Weak world demand for its exports, combined with disastrous
floods and domestic political uncertainty in 1994 weakened Pakistan’s
balance of payments, which had improved significantly by 1992. In 1993,
the current account deficit increased to $ 3.7 billion, compared to $ 1.5
billion in 1991, but declined again to about $2.4 billion in 199. Pakistan’s
exports continue to be dominated by cotton textiles and apparel, despite
government diversification efforts. Major imports include petroleum and
petroleum products, edible oil, wheat, chemicals, fertilizer, capital goods,
industrial raw materials, and consumer products. Amortization of
Pakistan’s large, but manageable, external debt (about $ 19.2 billion)
Consumed about 23% of export earnings in 1993.
Pakistan receives about $2 billion per year in loan/grant
sistance from international financial institutions (e.g., the IMF, the
World Bank, and Asian Development Bank) and bilateral donors.
However, all new U.S. economic assistance to Pakistan was suspended
ther October 1990, when then – president Bush could no longer certify
under the Pressler amendment to the Foreign Assistance Act [Section
SE(e)] “that Pakistan does not possess a nuclear explosive device and
f the proposed assistance package reduces significantly the risk that
Histan will possess a nuclear explosive device”. increasingly, the
position of assistance to Pakistan has shifted away from grants toward
repayable in foreign exchange. FOREIGN RELATIONS
Pakistan is a non aligned country, a prominent member of the
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and an active member of
Its foreign policy encompasses historically difficult relations with India, a
the United Nations, In 1989, Pakistan rejoined the British Commonwealth,
desire for a stable Afghanistan, long standing close relations with China,
extensive security and economic interests in the Persian Gulf (including
cordial relations with Iran), and wide ranging bilateral relations with the
United States and other western countries.
INDIA
Since partition, relations between Pakistan and India have been
characterized by rivalry and suspicion. Although many issues divide the
two countries, the most sensitive one since independence has been the
status of Kashmir.
At the time of partition, the princely state of Kashmir, though
ruled by a Hindu maharajah, had an overwhelmingly Muslim population,
When the maharajah hesitated in acceding to either Pakistan or India in
revolted in favor of joining Pakistan. In exchange for military assistance in
1947, some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan,
containing the revolt, the Kashmiri ruler offered his allegiance to India
Indian troops occupied the eastern portion of Kashmir, including its
capital, Srinigar, while the western half came under Pakistani control.
India addressed this dispute in the United Nations on January 1,
1948. One year later, the UN arranged a cease fire along a line dividing
Kashmir but leaving the northern end of the line undemarcated and the
Vale of Kashmir (with the majority of the population) under Indian
control. India and Pakistan agreed to hold a UN supervised plebiscite to
determine the state’s future, but India did not fulfill this commitment.
Full scale hostilities erupted in September 1965, when India
alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating
India controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased 3 weeks later, following
mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In January 1966,
Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and
agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other
differences.
Following the 1971 Indo pak conflict, President zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met in the mountain town
of Simla, India, in July 1972. They agreed to a line of control in Kashmir
resulting from the December 17, 1971, cease fire, and settlement of generated great uncertainty in Pakistan, and is generally acknowledged to
India’s self proclaimed “peaceful nuclear explosion in 1916
been the impetus for Pakistan’s nuclear weapons research program.
In 1993, the Pakistani and Indian Governments accused each other of
separatists in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India’s Punjab
engaged in combat in the remote Siachen Glacier region. Meanwhile, the
State and Sindhis in Pakistan’s Sindh Province. Indian and Pakistani troops
Indian Government intensified its criticism of Pakistan’s clandestine
Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister
in November 1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial
A Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other’s nuclear facilities. A
Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime
the Indian and Pakistani governments began high level talks to resolve the
formal “no attack” agreement was signed in January 1991. In early 1986,
Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.
Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri
militants challenged the authority of the Indian Government. Subsequent
high level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and
1, Pakistan, but relations worsened again after the destruction of the
Ayodhya mosque by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and terrorist
bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the foreign
secretaries of both countries in January 1994 were inconclusive.
I Therefore, tensions remain, particularly over Kashmir, nuclear and
ballistic missile proliferation and other defense and internal security
matters, communal concerns, and economic issues. Until the Kashmir
dispute is resolved, bilateral relations will remain tense.
AFGHANISTAN
Following the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the Pakistani
Government played a vital role in supporting the Afghan Resistance
movement and assisting Afghan refugees. After the Soviet withdrawal in
February 1989, Pakistan, with cooperation from the world community,
continued to provide extensive support for displaced Afghans. The United
States has provided nearly $ 500 million in humanitarian assistance for
Afghan refugees in Pakistan, mainly through multilateral organizations. In
1994, more than 1.4 million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan, as THE FORMER SOVIET UNION
Under military leader Ayub Khan, Pakistan sought to improve
relations with the Soviet Union; trade and cultural exchanges between the
two countries increased between 1966 and 1971. However, soviet criticism
relations; and many Pakistanis believed that the August 1971 Indo sovie
of Pakistan’s position in the 1971 war with India weakened bilateral
belligerency. Subsequent Soviet arms sales to India, amounting to billions
Treaty of Friendship. Peace and Cooperation encouraged Indian
of dollars on confessional terms, reinforced this argument.
During the 1980s, tensions increased between the Soviet Union
and Pakistan, because of the latter’s key role in organizing political and
material support for the Afghan rebel forces. The withdrawal of Soviet
forces from Afghanistan and the collapse of the former Soviet Union have
resulted in significantly improved bilateral relations.
PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
In 1950, Pakistan was among the first countries to recognize the
countries since have regularly exchanged high level visits resulting in 1
of 1962, Pakistan’s relations with China became stronger, and the two
People’s Republic of China (P.R.C.). Following the Sino Indian hostilities
technical assistance to Pakistan. Favorable relations with China have been
variety of agreements. China has provided economic, military, at
essential to Pakistan’s foreign policy. The P.R. C. strongly supported
Pakistan’s opposition to Soviet involvement in Afghanistan and is
perceived by Pakistan as a regional counterweight to India and Russia
IRAN AND THE PERSIAN GULF
Historically, Pakistan has had close geopolitical and culturi
religious linkages with Iran. Although the two countries enjoy cortid
relations, Pakistan’s relations with Iran are tempered by its extensive
relations with Saudi Arabia and other Arab Persian Gulf states.
Despite popular support for Iraq in 1991, the Pakista
Government supported the coalition against Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait and
sent 11,600 troops to defend Saudi Arabia. Pakistan provides military
security interests in the area. Nevertheless, Pakistan pursues an active
diplomatic relationship with Iran. U.S. – PAKISTAN RELATIONS
The United States and Pakistan established diplomatic relations in
1947. The U.S. agreement to provide economic and military assistance to
Pakistan and the latter’s involvement in the Baghdad pact/CENTO and
SEATO strengthened relations between the two nations. However, the
U.S. suspension of military assistance during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war
generated a widespread feeling in Pakistan that the United States was not a
reliable ally. Even though the U.S. suspended military assistance to both
countries involved in the conflict, the suspension of aid affected Pakistan
much more severely. Gradually, relations improved and arms sales were
renewed in 1975.
In November 1979, false rumors that the United States had
participated in the seizure of the grand mosque in Mecca provoked a mob
attack on the U.S. Embassy in Islamabad. The slow reaction of police
authorities allowed time for the embassy to be burned. Six persons died,
four of them U.S. nationals. The American cultural centers in Rawalpindi
and Lahore also were destroyed. At the time of the incident, U.S.
assistance to Pakistan also had been suspended because of concerns about
Pakistan’s nuclear program. Consequently, relations between the countries
weakened considerably.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 highlighted
the common interest of Pakistan and the U.S. in peace and stability in
South Asia. In 1981, the U.S. and Pakistan agreed on a $ 3.2 billion
military and economic assistance program aimed at helping Pakistan deal
with the heightened threat to security in the region and its economic
development needs.
Recognizing national security concerns and accepting Pakistan’s
assurances that it did not intend to construct a nuclear weapon, Congress
waived restrictions (Symington amendment) on military assistance to
Pakistan. In March 1986, the two countries agreed on a second multi year
FY 1988-93) $4 billion economic development and security assistance
Program. Since October 1, 1990, the United States has suspended all
economic and military assistance to Pakistan because of concerns about the
development of Pakistan’s nuclear program. Since then, despite constraints
resulting from the U.S. sanctions against Pakistan’s nuclear capabilities,
both countries continue to cooperate in areas of common interest such as
Contributing to UN peace keeping missions in Somali and toward
achieving a political settlement in Afghanistan.